Factors accounting for South Africa’s transition from apartheid state to nonracial democracy: externally — the collapse of the former Soviet Union, the successful transition to majority rule in neighboring Namibia, and international sanctions against South Africa (including cultural isolation and economic divestment; internally — the liberation struggle, white opposition to apartheid, the failure of apartheid, moderation of the leadership in the ruling National Party, and the breakdown of National Party hegemony; the personal qualities of Nelson Mandela and F. W. de Klerk.

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